Its head-waters rise on the landward side of the eastern escarpment within 50 miles of Annesley Bay on the Red Sea. It reaches the Sudan plains near Kassala , beyond which place its waters are dissipated in the sandy soil. Only the left bank of the upper course of the river is in Abyssinian territory, the Mareb here forming the boundary between Eritrea and Abyssinia.
Tsana q. It has an area of about sq. The Abai has many tributaries. Of these the Bashilo rises near Magdala and drains eastern Amhara ; the Jamma rises near Ankober and drains northern Shoa ; the Muger rises near Adis Ababa and drains south-western Shoa; the Didessa, the largest of the Abai's affluents, rises in the Kaffa hills and has a generally S. All these are perennial rivers. The right-hand tributaries, rising mostly on the western sides of the plateau, have steep slopes and are generally torrential in character.
The Bolassa, however, is perennial, and the Rahad and Dinder are important rivers in flood-time. In the mountains and plateaus of Kaffa and Galla in the south-west of Abyssinia rise the Baro, Gelo, Akobo and other of the chief affluents of the Sobat tributary of the Nile. These rivers descend from the mountains in great falls, and like the other Abyssinian streams are unnavigable in their upper courses. The Baro on reaching the plain becomes, however, a navigable stream affording an open waterway to the Nile.
The Baro, Pibor and Akobo form for m. The chief river of Abyssinia flowing east is the Hawash Awash, Awasi , which rises in the Shoan uplands and makes a semicircular bend first S. It reaches the Afar Danakil lowlands through a broad breach in the eastern escarpment of the plateau, beyond which it is joined on its left bank by its chief affluent, the Germama Kasam , and then trends round in the direction of Tajura Bay.
Here the Hawash is a copious stream nearly ft. Yet it fails to reach the coast, and after a winding course of about m. This remarkable phenomenon is explained by the position of Aussa in the centre of a saline lacustrine depression several hundred feet below sea-level.
While most of the other lagoons are highly saline, with thick incrustations of salt round their margins, Aussa remains fresh throughout the year, owing to the great body of water discharged into it by the Hawash. Another lacustrine region extends from the Shoa heights south-west to the Samburu Lake Rudolf depression.
In this chain of lovely upland lakes, some fresh, some brackish, some completely closed, others connected by short channels, the chief links in their order from north to south are:—Zwai, communicating southwards with Hara and Lamina, all in the Arusi Galla territory; then Abai with an outlet to a smaller tarn in the romantic Baroda and Gamo districts, skirted on the west sides by grassy slopes and wooded ranges from to nearly ft.
To the same system obviously belongs the neighbouring Lake Rudolf q. This lake receives at its northern end the waters of the Omo, which rises in the Shoa highlands and is a perennial river with many affluents. In its course of some m. The chief rivers of Somaliland q. There are numerous hot springs in Abyssinia, and earthquakes, though of no great severity, are not uncommon. Since the visit of W. Blanford in the geology has received little attention from travellers. The following formations are represented:—.
Mica schists form the prevalent rocks. Hornblende schist also occur and a compact felspathic rock in the Suris defile. The foliae of the schists strike north and south. They are overlain by the fossiliferous limestones of the Antalo group. Around Chelga and Adigrat coal -bearing beds occur, which Blanford suggests may be of the same age as the coal -bearing strata of India. The fossils are all characteristic Oolite forms and include species of Hemicidaris , Pholadomya , Ceromya , Trigonia and Alaria.
Igneous Rocks. The lower Ashangi group consists of basalts and dolerites often amygdaloidal. Their relation to the Antalo limestones is uncertain, but Blanford considers them to be not later in age than the Oolite. The upper Magdala group contains much trachytic rock of considerable thickness, lying perfectly horizontally, and giving rise to a series of terraced ridges characteristic of central Abyssinia.
They are interbedded with unfossiliferous sandstones and shales. Of more recent date probably Tertiary are some igneous rocks, rich in alkalis , occurring in certain localities in southern Abyssinia.
Of still more recent date are the basalts and ashes west of Massawa and around Annesley Bay and known as the Aden Volcanic Series. With regard to the older igneous rocks, the enormous amount they have suffered from denudation is a prominent feature. They have been worn into deep and narrow ravines, sometimes to a depth of to ft. Somaliland and the Danakil lowlands have a hot, dry climate producing semi- desert conditions; the country in the lower basin of the Sobat is hot, swampy and malarious.
But over the greater part of Abyssinia as well as the Galla highlands the climate is very healthy and temperate. The country lies wholly within the tropics, but its nearness to the equator is counterbalanced by the elevation of the land.
On the uplands, however, the air is cool and bracing in summer, and in winter very bleak. On the higher mountains the climate is Alpine in character.
The atmosphere on the plateaus is exceedingly clear, so that objects are easily recognizable at great distances. In addition to the variation in climate dependent on elevation, the year may be divided into three seasons. Winter, or the cold season, lasts from October to February, and is followed by a dry hot period, which about the middle of June gives place to the rainy season.
In the more southern districts of Gojam and Wallega heavy rains continue till the middle of September, and occasionally October is a wet month. There are also spring and winter rains ; indeed rain often falls in every month of the year. But the rainy season proper, caused by the south-west monsoon, lasts from June to mid-September, and commencing in the north moves southward.
In the region of the Sobat sources the rains begin earlier and last longer. The rainfall varies from about 30 in. The rainy season is of great importance not only to Abyssinia but to the countries of the Nile valley, as the prosperity of the eastern Sudan and Egypt is largely dependent upon the rainfall.
A season of light rain may be sufficient for the needs of Abyssinia, but there is little surplus water to find its way to the Nile; and a shortness of rain means a low Nile, as practically all the flood water of that river is derived from the Abyssinian tributaries see Nile.
In the valleys and lowlands the vegetation is dense, but the general appearance of the plateaus is of a comparatively bare country with trees and bushes thinly scattered over it. The glens and ravines on the hillside are often thickly wooded, and offer a delightful contrast to the open downs.
These conditions are particularly characteristic of the northern regions; in the south the vegetation on the uplands is more luxuriant. Among the many varieties of trees and plants found are the date palm , mimosa , wild olive , giant sycamores, junipers and laurels , the myrrh and other gum trees gnarled and stunted, these flourish most on the eastern foothills , a magnificent pine the Natal yellow pine, which resists the attacks of the white ant , the fig , orange , lime , pomegranate , peach , apricot, banana and other fruit trees; the grape vine rare , blackberry and raspberry ; the cotton and indigo plants, and occasionally the sugar cane.
Many kinds of grasses and flowers abound. Large areas are covered by the kussa, a hardy member of the rose family, which grows from 8 to 10 ft. The flowers and the leaves of this plant are highly prized for medicinal purposes. The fruit of the kurarina, a tree found almost exclusively in Shoa, yields a black grain highly esteemed as a spice. On the tableland a great variety of grains and vegetables are cultivated.
A fibrous plant, known as the sanseviera, grows in a wild state in the semi-desert regions of the north and south-east. Elephant and rhinoceros are numerous in certain low-lying districts, especially in the Sobat valley. The Abyssinian rhinoceros has two horns and its skin has no folds. The hippopotamus and crocodile inhabit the larger rivers flowing west, but are not found in the Hawash, in which, however, otters of large size are plentiful.
Lions abound in the low countries and in Somaliland. In central Abyssinia the lion is no longer found except occasionally in the river valleys. Leopards , both spotted and black, are numerous and often of great size; hyaenas are found everywhere and are hardy and fierce; the lynx , wolf , wild dog and jackal are also common.
Boars and badgers are more rarely seen. The giraffe is found in the western districts, the zebra and wild ass frequent the lower plateaus and the rocky hills of the north. There are large herds of buffalo and antelope , and gazelles of many varieties and in great numbers are met with in most parts of the country.
The civet is found in many parts of Abyssinia, but chiefly in the Galla regions. Squirrels and hares are numerous, as are several kinds of monkeys , notably the guereza , gelada , guenon and dog-faced baboon. They range from the tropical lowlands to heights of 10, ft. Birds are very numerous, and many of them remarkable for the beauty of their plumage. Great numbers of eagles , vultures , hawks , bustards and other birds of prey are met with; and partridges , duck , teal , guinea-fowl , sand- grouse , curlews , woodcock , snipe , pigeons , thrushes and swallows are very plentiful.
A fine variety of ostrich is commonly found. Among the birds prized for their plumage are the marabout, crane, heron, black-bird, parrot, jay and humming-birds of extraordinary brilliance. Among insects the most numerous and useful is the bee , honey everywhere constituting an important part of the food of the inhabitants. Of an opposite class is the locust. Serpents are not numerous, but several species are poisonous.
There are thousands of varieties of butterflies and other insects. Besides these ancient provinces and several others of smaller size, the empire includes the Wallega region, lying S.
With the exception of Harrar q. Harrar is some 30 m. The absence of large towns in Abyssinia proper is due to the provinces into which the country is divided having been for centuries in a state of almost continual warfare, and to the frequent change of the royal residences on the exhaustion of fuel supplies.
The earliest capital appears to have been Axum q. In the middle ages Gondar in Amhara became the capital of the country and was so regarded up to the middle of the 19th century.
Since the capital has been Adis Ababa in the kingdom of Shoa. The other towns of Abyssinia worthy of mention may be grouped according to their geographical position. None of them has a permanent population exceeding , but at several large markets are held periodically. The three last-named places are on the high plateau near its eastern escarpment and on the direct road south from Massawa to Shoa.
West of Adigrat is the monastery of Debra-Domo, one of the most celebrated sanctuaries in Abyssinia. In Amhara there are:— Magdala q. Sokota, one of the great central markets, and capital of the province of Waag in Amhara, at the converging point of several main trade routes; the market is numerously attended, especially by dealers in the salt blocks which come from Lake Alalbed.
Bonga, the commercial centre of Kaffa , and Jiren, capital of the neighbouring province of Jimma, are frequented by traders from all the surrounding provinces, and also by foreign merchants from the seaports on the Gulf of Aden. Apart from these market-places there are no settlements of any size in southern Abyssinia. The continuation of this railway to the capital was begun in from the Adis Ababa end. There are few roads in Abyssinia suitable for wheeled traffic.
Transport is usually carried on by mules , donkeys , pack- horses and in the lower regions camels. From Dire Dawa to Harrar there is a well-made carriage road, and from Harrar to Adis Ababa the caravan track is kept in good order, the river Hawash being spanned by an iron bridge. There is also a direct trade route from Dire Dawa to the capital.
There is also a telephonic service, the longest line being from Harrar to the capital. Agriculture is extensively followed, chiefly by the Gallas, the indolence of the Abyssinians preventing them from being good farmers.
In the lower regions a wide variety of crops are grown—among them maize, durra, wheat, barley, rye, teff , pease, cotton and sugar-cane—and many kinds of fruit trees are cultivated. Teff is a kind of millet with grains about the size of an ordinary pin-head, of which is made the bread commonly eaten. The low grounds also produce a grain, tocussa , from which black bread is made.
The castor bean grows wild, the green castor in the low, damp regions, the red castor at medium altitudes. The kat plant, a medicinal herb which has a tonic quality, is largely grown in the Harrar province. On the higher plateaus the hardier cereals only are cultivated. Here the chief crops are wheat, barley, teff , peppers, vegetables of all kinds and coffee.
Above 10, ft. Coffee is one of the most important products of the country, and its original home is believed to be the Kaffa highlands.
It is cultivated in the S. Two qualities of coffee are cultivated, one known as Abyssinian, the other as Harrar—Mocha. Little attention is paid to the crop, the berries being frequently gathered from the ground, and consequently the coffee is of comparatively low grade. It is grown in the highlands of Harrar, and cultivated with extreme care.
The raising of cotton received a considerable impetus in the early years of the 20th century. The soil of the Hawash valley proved particularly suitable for raising this crop. In the high plateaus the planting of seeds begins in May, in the lower plateaus and the plains in June, but in certain parts where the summer is long and rain abundant sowing and reaping are going on at the same time. Most regions yield two, many three crops a year.
The methods of culture are primitive, the plough commonly used being a long pole with two vertical iron teeth and a smaller pole at right angles to which oxen are attached.
This implement costs about four shillings. The ploughing is done by the men, but women and girls do the reaping. The grain is usually trodden out by cattle and is often stored in clay-lined pits. Land comparatively poor yields crops eight to tenfold the quantity sown; the major part of the land yields twenty to thirtyfold. In the northern parts of the empire very little land is left uncultivated.
The hillsides are laid out in terraces and carefully irrigated in the dry season, the channels being often two miles or more long. Of all the cereals barley is the most widely grown. The average rate of pay to an agricultural labourer is about threepence a day in addition to food, which may cost another penny a day. The Abyssinians keep a large number of domestic animals.
Among cattle the Sanga or Galla ox is the most common. The bulls are usually kept for ploughing, the cow being preferred for meat. Most of the cattle are of the zebu or hump-backed variety, hut there are also two breeds—one large, the other resembling the Jersey cattle—which are straight-backed. The horns of the zebu variety are sometimes four feet long. The majority are not wool-bearing, but in one district a very small black sheep is raised for wool.
Goats are of both the long and short-haired varieties. The horns of the large goats are often thirty inches in length and stand up straight from the head. The goats from the Arusi Galla country have fine silky hair which is sometimes sixteen inches long. The meat of both sheep and goats is excellent; that of the latter is preferred by the natives.
In the estimated number of sheep and goats in the country was 20,, Large quantities of butter, generally rancid, are made from the milk of cows, goats and sheep. In the Leka province small black pigs are bred in considerable numbers. The horses very numerous are small but strong; they are generally about 14 hands in height.
The best breeds come from the Shoa uplands. The ass is also small and strong; and the mule, bred in large numbers, is of excellent quality, and both as a transport animal and as a mount is preferred to the horse. The country is admirably adapted for stock-raising. In the Wallega district are veins of gold-bearing quartz, mined to a certain extent.
Only a small proportion is exported. Besides gold, silver, iron, coal and other minerals are found. Trade and Currency. For southern Abyssinia, Kaffa and Galla lands, Harrar is the great entrepot, goods being forwarded thence to Jibuti and the other Somaliland ports. There is also a considerable trade with the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan through the frontier towns of Rosaires and Gallabat. At the French and British ports there is freedom of trade, but on goods for Abyssinia entering Massawa a discriminating tax is levied if they are not imported from Italy.
The chief articles of export are coffee, skins, ivory, civet, ostrich feathers, gum, pepper, kat plant used by Moslems for its stimulating properties , gold in small quantities and live stock. The trade in skins is mainly with the United States through Aden; America also takes a large proportion of the coffee exported. For live stock there is a good trade with Madagascar. No other article of import approaches cotton in importance, but a considerable trade is done in arms and ammunition , rice , sugar , flour and other foods, and a still larger trade in candles and matches from Sweden , oil , carpets oriental and European , hats and umbrellas.
Commerce long remained in a backward condition; but under the Emperor Menelek II. Until the end of the 19th century the usual currency was the Maria Theresa dollar , bars of rock-salt and cartridges. In a new coinage was introduced, with the Menelek dollar or talari , worth about two shillings, as the standard.
This new coinage gradually superseded the older currency. In the Bank of Abyssinia, the first banking house in the country, was founded, with its headquarters at Adis Ababa.
It was founded under Egyptian law by the National Bank of Egypt, which institution had previously obtained a concession from the emperor Menelek. Within their provinces the rases princes exercise large powers. In October an imperial decree announced the constitution of a cabinet on European lines, ministers being appointed to the portfolios of foreign affairs , war, commerce, justice and finance.
The legal system is said to be based on the Justinian code. From the decisions of the judges there is a right of appeal to the emperor. The Abyssinian church q. The land is not held in fee simple , but is subject to the control of the emperor or the church.
Revenue is derived from an ad valorem tax on all imports; the purchase and sale of animals; from royalties on trading concessions, and in other ways, including fees for the administration of justice. Education, of a rudimentary character, is given by the clergy.
The Abyssinian calendar is as follows:—The Abyssinian year of days in leap-year begins on the 1st of Maskarram, which corresponds to about the 10th of September. The remaining five days in the year, termed Pagmen or Quaggimi six in leap-year, the extra day being named Kadis Yohannis , are put in at the end and treated as holidays. Abyssinian reckoning is about seven years eight months behind the Gregorian.
Festivals , such as Easter , fall a week later than in western Europe. Every able-bodied Abyssinian is expected to join the army in case of need, and a force, well armed with modern weapons , approaching , can be placed in the field. The cavalry is chiefly composed of Galla horsemen. The inhabitants consist mainly of the Abyssinians, the Galla and the Somali the two last-named peoples are separately noticed.
There is a small colony of British , French , Italians and Russians. The following remarks apply solely to Abyssinia proper and its inhabitants.
Abyssinia appears to have been originally peopled by the eastern branch of the Hamitic family , which has occupied this region from the remotest times, and still constitutes the great bulk of its inhabitants, though the higher classes are now strongly Semitized. Southwards Shoa, Kobbo, Amuru a decided chocolate and almost sooty black is the rule.
Many of the people are distinctly negroid , with big lips, small nose, broad at the base, and frizzly or curly black hair. The negroid element in the population is due chiefly to the number of negro women who have been imported into the harems of the Abyssinians. The majority, however, may be described as a mixed Hamito - Semitic people, who are in general well formed and handsome, with straight and regular features, lively eyes, hair long and straight or somewhat curled and in colour dark olive, approaching to black.
The Galla, who came originally from the south, are not found in many parts of the country, but predominate in the Wollo district, between Shoa and Amhara.
It is from the Galla that the Abyssinian army is largely recruited, and, indeed, there are few of the chiefs who have not an admixture of Galla blood in their veins. But the official language and that of all the upper classes is of Semitic origin, derived from the ancient Himyaritic, which is the most archaic member of the Semitic linguistic family.
Geez, as it is called, was introduced with the first immigrants from Yemen , and although no longer spoken is still studied as the liturgical language of the Abyssinian Christians.
Its literature consists of numerous translations of Jewish , Greek and Arabic works, besides a valuable version of the Bible. See Ethiopia. All are written in a peculiar syllabic script which, unlike all other Semitic forms, runs from left to right, and is derived from that of the Sabaeans and Minaeans, still extant in the very old rock-inscriptions of south Arabia. The hybridism of the Abyssinians is reflected in their political and social institutions, and especially in their religious beliefs and practices.
On a seething mass of African heathendom , already in early times affected by primitive Semitic ideas , was suddenly imposed a form of Christianity which became the state religion. While the various ethnical elements have been merged in the composite Abyssinian nation, the primitive and more advanced religious ideas have nowhere been fused in a uniform Christian system. Foreigners are often surprised at the strange mixture of savagery and lofty notions in a Christian community which, for instance, accounts accidental manslaughter as wilful murder.
Recourse is still had to dreams as a means of detecting crime. Murders and executions are frequent, yet cruelty is not a marked feature of their character; and in war they seldom kill their prisoners. When a man is convicted of murder, he is handed over to the relatives of the deceased, who may either put him to death or accept a ransom.
When the murdered person has no relatives, the priests take upon themselves the office of avengers. The natural indolence of the people has been fostered by the constant wars, which have discouraged peaceful occupations.
The soldiers live by plunder, the monks by alms. The principal parts of the cow are eaten raw while yet warm and quivering, the remainder being cut into small pieces and cooked with the favourite sauce of butter and red pepper paste.
The raw meat eaten in this way is considered to be very superior in taste and much more tender than when cold. The statement by James Bruce respecting the cutting of steaks from a live cow has frequently been called in question, but there can be no doubt that James Bruce actually saw what he narrates.
Many forms of game are forbidden; for example, all water-fowl. The Abyssinians are heavy eaters and drinkers, and any occasion is seized as an excuse for a carouse.
Old and young, of both sexes, pass days and nights in these symposia , at which special customs and rules prevail. Little bread is eaten, the Abyssinian preferring a thin cake of durra meal or teff , kneaded with water and exposed to the sun till the dough begins to rise, when it is baked.
Bars of rock-salt, after serving as coins, are, when broken up, used as food. There is a general looseness of morals: marriage is a very slight tie, which can be dissolved at any time by either husband or wife.
Polygamy is by no means uncommon. Hence there is little family affection, and what exists is only between children of the same father and mother. The dress of the Abyssinians is much like that of the Arabs. It consists of close-fitting drawers reaching below the knees, with a sash to hold them, and a large white robe.
The Abyssinian, however, is beginning to adopt European clothes on the upper part of the body, and European hats are becoming common. The priests wear a white jacket with loose sleeves, a head-cloth like a turban and a special type of shoe with turned-up toes and soles projecting at the heel. In the Woldeba district hermits dress in ochre-yellow cloths, while the priests of some sects wear hides dyed red.
Clothes are made of cotton, though the nobles and great people wear silk robes presented by the emperor as a mark of honour. The possessor of one of these is allowed to appear in the royal presence wearing it instead of having one shoulder bared, as is the usual Abyssinian method of showing respect. A high-born man covers himself to the mouth in the presence of inferiors.
The men either cut their hair short or plait it; married women plait their hair and wind round the head a black or parti-coloured silk handkerchief; girls wear their hair short. In the hot season no Abyssinian goes without a flag-shaped fan of plaited rushes.
The Christian Abyssinians, men and women, wear a blue silk cord round the neck, to which is often attached a crucifix. For ornament women wear silver ankle-rings with bells, silver necklaces and silver or gold rosettes in the ears.
The women are very fond of strong scents, which are generally oils imported from India and Ceylon. The men scarcely ever appear without a long curved knife, generally they carry shield and spear as well.
Although the army has been equipped with modern rifles, the common weapon of the people is the matchlock, and slings are still in use. The original arms were a sickle-shaped sword, spear and shield. The Abyssinians are great hunters and are also clever at taming wild beasts. The nobles hunt antelopes with leopards, and giraffes and ostriches with horse and greyhound. In elephant-hunting iron bullets weighing a quarter of a pound are used; throwing-clubs are employed for small game, and lions are hunted with the spear.
Lion skins belong to the emperor, but the slayer keeps a strip to decorate his shield. Stone and mortar are used in building, but the Abyssinian houses are of the roughest kind, being usually circular huts, ill made and thatched with grass. These huts are sometimes made simply of straw and are surrounded by high thorn hedges, but, in the north, square houses, built in stories, flat-roofed, the roof sometimes laid at the same slope as the hillside, and some with pitched thatched roofs, are common.
The inside walls are plastered with cow-dung, clay and finely chopped straw. None of the houses have chimneys, and smoke soon colours the interior a dark brown. Generally the houses are filthy and ill ventilated and swarm with vermin. Drainage and sanitary arrangements do not exist. The caves of the highlands are often used as dwellings. The most remarkable buildings in Abyssinia are certain churches hewn out of the solid rock. The chief native industries are leather-work, embroidery and filigree metal-work; and the weaving of straw mats and baskets is extensively practised.
The baskets are particularly well made, and are frequently used to contain milk. Abyssinian art is crude and is mainly reserved for rough frescoes in the churches.
These frescoes, however, often exhibit considerable skill, and are indicative of the lively imagination of their painters. They are in the Byzantine style and the colouring is gaudy. Saints and good people are always depicted full face, the devil and all bad folk are shown in profile. Among the finest frescoes are those in the church of the Holy Trinity at Adowa and those in the church at Kwarata, on the shores of Lake Tsana.
The churches are usually circular in form, the walls of stone, the roof thatched. The chief musical instruments are rough types of trumpets and flutes, drums, tambourines and cymbals, and quadrangular harps.
The connexion between Egypt and Ethiopia was in early times very intimate, and occasionally the two countries were under the same ruler, so that the arts and civilization of the one naturally found their way into the other.
In early times, too, the Hebrews had commercial intercourse with the Ethiopians; and according to Abyssinian tradition the queen of Sheba who visited Solomon was a monarch of their country, and from their son Menelek the kings of Abyssinia claim descent.
During the Captivity many of the Jews settled here and brought with them a knowledge of the Jewish religion. Under the Ptolemies, the arts as well as the enterprise of the Greeks entered Ethiopia, and led to the establishment of Greek colonies.
Out of these Greek colonies appears to have arisen the kingdom of Auxume which flourished from the 1st to the 7th century A. At Axum, the site of the ancient capital, many vestiges of its former greatness still exist; and the ruins of Adulis, which was once a seaport on the bay of Annesley, are now about 4 m.
From the scanty evidence available it would appear that the new religion at first made little progress, and the Introduction of Christianity. Axumite kings seem to have been among the latest converts. Rand, a native of Quincy, Massachusetts, opened a print shop in Chicago.
The duo landed several important contracts, including the Tribune 's later renamed the Chicago Tribune printing operation. In , Rand McNally produced its first map, a railroad guide, using a new cost effective printing technique known as wax process engraving. As Chicago developed as a railway hub, the Rand firm, now incorporated as Rand McNally, began producing a wide array of railroad maps and guides. Over time, the firm expanded into atlases, globes, educational material, and general literature.
By embracing the wax engraving process, Rand McNally was able to dominate the map and atlas market, pushing more traditional American lithographic publishers like Colton, Johnson, and Mitchell out of business. Hammond, whose name is today synonymous with maps and atlases, and who later started his own map company, C.
Both firms remain in business. Learn More
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